Indus Valley Civilization: Major Sites, Features and Decline

Urban Planning & Architecture of IVC

1. Citadel and lower town: Most Harappan cities were divided into two parts—a raised, fortified citadel with major public and administrative buildings, and an expansive lower town on a lower level for residential and commercial life.

2. Grid layout and streets:  Settlements followed a rectilinear plan with streets oriented roughly north–south and east–west; broad, straight roadways intersected at near right angles to form an organized urban grid.

3. Standardized Structures: Houses and civic structures used standardized baked bricks (often laid with minimal mortar), indicating uniform building norms and centralized planning; multi-room dwellings ranged from small to large, many with internal courtyards.

4. Water, baths, and wells:  Private bathrooms and household wells were common; cities featured public water works and monumental baths such as the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, reflecting advanced water management and public hygiene.

5. Advanced drainage and sanitation: House outlets connected to covered, brick-lined street drains made with mortar, lime, and gypsum; wastewater moved from residences into subsurface sewers, showcasing a citywide sanitation network.

6. Civic and economic infrastructures: Massive brick platforms, granaries (e.g., Harappa), pillared halls, and a dockyard at Lothal point to organized storage, civic gathering spaces, and trade connectivity; at sites like Dholavira, deep reservoirs underline sophisticated hydraulic engineering.

Social Life in IVC

1. Political Authority: There likely was some central authority or state, suggested by standardised weights, common scripts, specialised sites, and far‑flung trade posts like Shortughai—these need planning and coordination to work.

2. Social Classes: House sizes and locations hint at social layers; prosperous merchants seem to sit at the top in a trade‑centric economy, while artisans and farmers formed the broader base.

3. Dress and Fabrics: Many spindle whorls point to regular use of cotton and wool; terracotta figurines often show draped garments and hair ornaments as everyday styles.

4. Ornaments and Materials: Beads and jewellery—necklaces, bangles, rings—were common, crafted in gold, silver, ivory, shell, and semi‑precious stones; carnelian beads from places like Lothal are a classic example.

5. Leisure and Play: Terracotta toys and carts from Mohenjo‑Daro suggest children’s play was common; dice pieces indicate indoor games, and figurines hint at music and dance as shared pastimes.

Script and Deciphermen

1. The Harappan script remains one of the greatest mysteries of ancient history. With over 4,000 inscriptions found mainly on seals, pottery, and tablets, the script is made up of pictorial symbols—animals, geometric shapes, and abstract signs—usually very short, averaging 5 to 8 characters per inscription.

Key Features:

• The script uses pictographs mixed with abstract symbols.

• Most texts are brief, with the longest known inscription having just 26 signs.

• Writing generally moves from right to left.

Society, Culture & Arts

1. Population: Estimates suggest ~5 million people in Indus Valley civilization’s mature phase. Most were artisans or merchants living in well-ordered neighborhoods. No clear evidence of palaces or kings – society might have been more collective or decentralized.

2. Art & Crafts: Indus artisans excelled in pottery, bead-making (carnelian, faience), metallurgy (bronze, copper, gold), and bead jewelry. Terracotta figurines (often female) and toys (wheeled carts, animal toys) reflect daily life and possible religious symbolism. The famous Pashupati seal (see below) and animal seals show their artistry.

3. Script: Harappans used a pictographic script on ~4,000 seals and pottery shards. The script (with animal symbols like bulls, unicorns) remains undeciphered despite ~100 scholarly attempts. Its purpose (administrative or ritual) and language are still debated. Tamil Nadu’s recent prize aims to encourage its decipherment.

4. Social Life: Personal adornments (beaded jewelry, headdresses) and toys suggest a society valuing craftsmanship and daily comforts. 

Religion and Rituals of IVC

The religion of the Indus Valley Civilization was practical, centered around daily life and natural forces, rather than grand temples or kings.

1. Mother Goddess Worship: Many clay figurines found at sites like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa suggest people revered a mother goddess, representing fertility and prosperity—an idea that later shaped Indian religious traditions.​

2. Pashupati Seal (Proto-Shiva): A famous seal shows a horned, yogic figure surrounded by animals. Many scholars see this as an early form of Shiva, linking Harappan culture with later Hindu beliefs, but this is still debated.​

3. Nature and Animal Worship: Seals with tree symbols (especially the pipal tree), unicorns, and bulls show the people’s reverence for nature and certain animals, patterns that also continue in Indian culture.​

4. Rituals and Sacred Spaces: The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro was probably used for religious bathing and community rituals—similar to the concept of purification in later times. Fire altars found at Kalibangan hint at fire worship or ritual offerings, possibly connected to later Vedic practices.​

5. Burial Customs: Harappans used diverse burial methods and included pots or ornaments in graves, hinting at a belief in an afterlife or spiritual continuity.​

Economy and Trade

1. Agriculture was the backbone: wheat, barley, peas, and cotton were cultivated; cattle, buffalo, goats, and even elephants were domesticated. The Indus farmers also grew rice in some areas. A surplus-producing economy supported urban life.

2. Craft specialization thrived: weavers (cotton textiles), metallurgists (bronze tools/jewelry), and lapidaries (carnelian beads) were common. Standardized weights  facilitated trade. Indus cities minted no coins but used tallies and seals for commercial transactions.

3. Long-distance Trade: The Indus Civilization had wide trade links (one of the world’s earliest long-range trade networks). Harappan seals and beads have been found in Mesopotamian sites (Ur, Sumer) and Gulf regions, while Mesopotamian artifacts (e.g. cylinder seals) reached the Indus valley. Evidence shows trade in copper, lapis lazuli, ivory, and possibly tin. The port-city of Lothal (with a dockyard) attests to maritime trade in the Arabian Sea.