Gajendra Singh Godara
Sep 15, 2025
20
mins read
The Age of Discovery in 15th–16th century Europe saw explorers like Vasco da Gama (Portugal) seek sea routes to India after the fall of Constantinople (1453) blocked land routes. Motivated by demand for spices, textiles and bypassing Ottoman/Arab middlemen, Europeans sailed around Africa to India, initiating new trade and eventual colonial rule.
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Indian goods – spices, silk, cottons, gems – were immensely valued in Europe (since Roman times). Traditional overland routes were monopolized (e.g. Venice–Genoa) and tolls rose after Constantinople’s capture.
To maximize profits, European kingdoms and merchants (Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, England, France) funded expeditions for a direct sea route to India. Religious zeal (Christian missionary activity) and global rivalry further spurred exploration. Innovations in navigation (compass, new ship design) and gunpowder weapons enabled ocean voyages and armed trade expeditions.
Table of content
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed at Calicut (Kozhikode) on the Malabar Coast. This opened the all-sea route around Africa (via Cape of Good Hope) to India. Following this, Europeans arrived in phases – Portuguese first, then English, Dutch, Danes, French – each later vying for control.
Context and Motivation
With Ottoman control of land routes after Constantinople (1453), European nations sought sea routes for trade.
Portugal, ahead in maritime advancement, aimed to control spices, bypass middlemen, and spread Christianity.
This marked the advent of Europeans in India with trade and empire intertwined.
Sea Route Discovery and First Contact (1498-1501)
In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Calicut via the Cape of Good Hope – first direct sea link for Indian ocean trade.
Pedro Álvares Cabral (1500) set up the first factory at Calicut; conflict with Arab traders followed.
Building a Naval-Commercial System (1505-1515)
In 1505, Francisco de Almeida became the first governor (“Blue Water Policy”) to dominate sea lanes with the mission to consolidate Portuguese influence and destroy Muslim trade.
Blue Water Policy (Cartaze system): It was a naval trade licence or pass issued by the Portuguese empire in the Indian Ocean during the sixteenth century. Its name derives from the Portuguese term 'cartas', meaning letters.
Territorial Hubs and Administration (1515-1538)
Alfonso de Albuquerque captured Goa in 1510; made it administrative headquarters.
Albuquerque introduced a permit system for other ships and exercised control over major shipbuilding centres.
Forts and settlements established at Cochin, Daman, Diu; administrative structures with viceroys, local treaties.
An interesting feature of his rule was the abolition of sati.
Power, Policy and Society
The Portuguese wielded naval power, artillery, and used force and diplomacy with Indian rulers.
Missionary activity: Jesuit missions, churches; attempted conversion.
Local society saw inter-cultural exchanges, but also conflict with Arab merchants, local elites.
Economic and Cultural Impact
Redirected spice trade directly to Lisbon; disrupted Arab-Italian inter-mediation.
Introduced new crops, crafts; brought printing, European architecture; spread Christianity.
Decline of Portuguese Rule
The advent of Europeans in India witnessed its first phase of decline as Portuguese dominance crumbled by the 18th century:
Territorial Losses: Maratha expansion captured strategic Portuguese strongholds of Salsette and Bassein (1739), significantly reducing their coastal control.
Regional Power Shifts: Europeans in India faced new challenges as powerful dynasties emerged in Egypt, Persia, and North India, while turbulent Marathas became immediate neighbors.
Commercial Competition: The arrival of Europeans in India intensified as Dutch and English East India Companies challenged Portuguese trade monopoly from the mid-17th century.
Religious Antagonism: Jesuit conversion policies and antagonism toward Muslims created widespread resentment among Hindus, undermining local support.
Administrative Retreat: Portugal ceded Bombay to England (1661) through Catherine of Braganza's marriage treaty, retaining only Goa, Daman, and Diu with greatly reduced influence.
Strategic Limitations: Unlike other Europeans in India, Portuguese lacked resources and naval strength to compete effectively, marking their transition from maritime dominance to peripheral colonial presence.
The Dutch East India Company (VOC) arrived next. They opened their first factory in Masulipatnam (1605) on the Coromandel Coast and in Pulicat(1610). Dutch focus was on the spice trade (Maluku nutmeg, cloves, Malabar pepper) but they also set up outposts at Pulicat, Cochin, Surat, etc.
In 1741 at the Battle of Colachel, King Marthanda Varma of Travancore defeated the Dutch commander De Lannoy – one of the first defeats of a European power in Asia.
Gradually the Dutch shifted emphasis to Indonesia and clashed with the British for trade. By the mid-18th century British East India Company advances and Dutch focus on the East Indies weakened Dutch India. An 1667 agreement even traded Dutch Indian holdings for British Indonesian ones.
Context and Charter (Early 1600s)
English merchants, eager to break the Portuguese-Dutch monopoly over Asian trade, sought royal support to establish a trading company.
Queen Elizabeth I granted a royal charter on 31 December 1600 to “The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies,” giving it exclusive rights to trade east of the Cape of Good Hope.
The Company’s initial objective was trade in from the East Indies (Southeast Asia), but they redirected focus to India for more stable opportunities.
The mechanism of monopoly was key: only this Company could legally trade in the specified regions, setting the stage for colonial expansion later.
Early Diplomacy and Rivalry (1609–1615)
In 1609, Captain William Hawkins led the first English diplomatic mission to Mughal Emperor Jahangir, seeking trade privileges and settlement rights.
The English met stiff resistance from the Portuguese, who controlled sea routes and forts; conflicts culminated in the 1612 naval battle off Surat where English naval commander Thomas Best defeated Portuguese ships.
Sir Thomas Roe’s diplomatic mission (1615-19) solidified Company relations with Jahangir, receiving firman (imperial decree) allowing establishment of factories and trade rights in Mughal territories.
The farman granted rights to trade and build warehouses but not sovereignty—initially limiting the Company to commercial activity.
Western and Southern Footholds (1611–1687)
First English factory was set up at Masulipatnam (1611), followed by Surat (1612), strategically vital for access to wealthy trading routes.
In 1639, the Company leased Madraspatnam from the local Nayak ruler and established Fort St. George, marking the foundation of the Madras Presidency.
Bombay was given to England as part of the Portuguese princess Catherine of Braganza's dowry (1662) and officially leased to the Company in 1668. It gradually became the western headquarters by 1687.
These footholds allowed the Company a base to control trade routes, raise troops, and expand influence in southern and western India.
Eastern Expansion and Calcutta’s Rise (1651–1700)
Permission to trade in Bengal was obtained from Mughal governor Shah Shuja in 1651, enabling entry into eastern India’s fertile and wealthy markets.
Shaista Khan, the Mughal governor, launched campaigns to restrict English trade but was largely unsuccessful in curbing the growing presence.
Job Charnock’s settlement at Sutanuti in 1690 laid the nucleus for the future city of Calcutta, which formally became an English possession with acquisition of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata in 1698.
Fort William’s construction in 1700 established Calcutta as the capital of the Bengal Presidency, signaling the Company’s transition from trade to territorial control.
Consolidation and Competition
The Company engaged in constant rivalry with Portuguese and Dutch colonists who dominated coastal trade; while periodic conflicts occurred, strategic compromises were also common.
Regional powers such as Golconda granted the Company “Golden Farman,” ensuring trade privileges and monopolies in exchange for annual tribute.
The shift from mere coastal trading posts to fortified towns helped the Company defend itself and assert authority in surrounding regions.
Emerging military power gave them leverage to interfere in local politics, laying seeds for eventual territorial domination.
From Trade to Territorial Power
Commercial charters and trade privileges provided a legal and economic basis for expanding military presence, enabling the Company to field armies and collect revenue.
The gradual erosion of Mughal power and the Company’s growing ambitions set the stage for conflicts like the Carnatic Wars and the Battle of Plassey (1757, Battle of Buxar (1764).
This phase signifies the transition from economic entity to political-military power in India, underpinning British colonial rule.
Entry and bases (1664–1739): The French East India Company (1664) set up its first factory at Surat (1668), followed by Masulipatnam (1669), and developed key enclaves—Pondicherry (from 1673/74), Chandernagore (Bengal), Mahé (Malabar), Yanam (1723), and Karaikal (1739).
Dupleix’s political turn (1740s–1750s): Governor Dupleix used alliance politics in the Deccan/Carnatic to back claimants and expand influence; this sparked the Carnatic Wars with the British—capture of Madras (1746) in the First War, seesaw contests in the Second, and decisive British victory at Wandiwash (1760) in the Third.
Treaty and confinement (1763 onward): The Treaty of Paris (1763) ended French imperial ambitions in India, confining them to trading enclaves without sovereignty or fortification; the French retained Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahé as small settlements.
Long tail and transfer (1954/1962): After the Treaty of Paris (1763) confined the French to trading enclaves, these pockets—Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahé—continued into independent India; they merged de facto on 1 November 1954, and the merger became de jure in 1962 when the treaty of cession was fully ratified.
Denmark’s minor role began in 1616–1620 with the Danish East India Company. They established Tranquebar (Tharangambadi) on the Coromandel Coast in 1620 and later Serampore (as Frederiks Nagore) near Calcutta in 1755.
The Danes also briefly controlled settlements in Bengal and Nicobar Islands. Their impact was limited, but notable: Tranquebar became a base for Lutheran missions and Serampore Mission Press (established 1800) printed textbooks in Indian languages. Denmark’s Indian possessions were never large nor contested; by the mid-19th century they sold them to the British (Serampore and others by 1845).
Other communities included Armenian merchants (prominent in Mughal courts) and small traders from Sweden, Austria and even Napoleonic Corsicans. These had negligible political impact but contributed to trade and diplomacy. Overall, apart from the five major powers above, no other European nation held significant colonies in India.
Power | Arrival | Key Settlements | Decline/Cession |
Portuguese | 1498 (Calicut) | Goa (1510), Daman, Diu, Cochin | Power waned after 17th c; Goa freed 1961 |
Dutch (VOC) | 1605 (Masulipatnam) | Pulicat, Cochin, Surat, Nicobar Is. | Declined mid-18th c; last Indian posts c.1825 |
British (East India Company) | 1600 (charter) | Surat, Madras, Bombay, Calcutta | Superseded other Europeans; Crown took over 1858 |
French (Compagnie) | 1664 (Surat) | Pondicherry, Chandernagore, Mahe, Yanam, Karaikal | Restricted to enclaves after 1763; ceded 1954 |
Danish | 1616 (Establishment) | Tranquebar, Serampore | Sold out by 1845 (British takeover) |
Table: Chronology of European arrivals, key bases, and decline. (Portuguese India existed 1510–1961; Dutch India 1605–1825; Danish India 1620–1869; French India 1759–1954.)
The arrival of Europeans in India witnessed British triumph over rival powers through strategic advantages that distinguished them in the colonial race:
Corporate Structure: The British East India Company's democratic board of directors with annual shareholder elections provided superior organizational flexibility compared to rigid European counterparts.
Naval Dominance: Royal Navy's supremacy, proven at Trafalgar and against Spanish Armada, secured crucial sea routes and logistical support for Europeans in India.
Industrial Edge: Britain's Industrial Revolution leadership in textiles, metallurgy, and steam power gave decisive technological advantages during the advent of European in India competition.
Military Professionalism: Well-disciplined British forces with innovative tactics consistently defeated larger armies through superior training and weaponry.
Political Stability: Unlike France's revolutionary chaos and Portuguese decline, Britain maintained stable governance enabling sustained colonial investment.
Religious Tolerance: Lesser missionary zeal compared to Portuguese/Spanish made British rule more acceptable to Indian populations.
Financial Innovation: Bank of England's debt market utilization funded extensive military campaigns, outpacing financially constrained European rivals.
This combination transformed the arrival of the British in India from trading ventures into comprehensive colonial dominance, answering who came first to India with Portuguese priority but British power ultimate supremacy through systematic advantages.
European arrival had deep economic, political and cultural effects on India:
Economic Impact:
Europeans established trading monopolies. The Portuguese and later the British imposed cartazze and other controls, channeling Indian trade profits to Europe.
Under British rule, India became a supplier of raw materials and a market for British manufactures, leading to de-industrialization. Traditional handicraft and textile industries collapsed under competition from machine-made British goods. Vast wealth (textiles, spices) was drained to Europe through unfair terms of trade and heavy taxation.
Political Impact:
Competition among European powers intertwined with local politics. Mercantilist rivalries (e.g., Carnatic Wars) led to military conflicts. British victories (Plassey, Buxar) enabled them to gain sovereignty (Diwani in 1765).
By the 19th century only Britain remained dominant; other Europeans became sidelined or ceded territories (e.g. Portuguese Goa until 1961, French enclaves until 1954). The colonial struggle fragmented Indian authority, paving the way for centralized imperial rule (Company, then Crown).
Cultural Impact:
Europeans introduced new institutions and ideas. The Portuguese brought Christianity (e.g. Jesuit missions), the first printing press (Goa, 1556) and Western education (Jesuit seminaries).
They introduced New World crops (potato, chilli, tobacco, cashew etc. to India). The Danes, though small in number, sponsored the Serampore Mission Press (early 19th c.) which published Bengali and Sanskrit books.
British India later expanded English education, legal systems and infrastructure. Indian society was transformed by new crops, technology and global cultural exchange – from architecture (Indo-European styles) to cuisine (e.g. peppers, bread) to language (English administration).
However, colonial policies also disrupted traditional social structures and patronage (e.g. decline of royal courts eroded support for arts).
By the early 19th century only the British remained a major power in India. The Portuguese were confined to Goa–Daman–Diu (annexed by India in 1961). The Dutch and Danes had long withdrawn, and the French were reduced to a few small enclaves (transferred by 1954). In effect, the British Empire emerged supreme, shaping the political borders, economy and institutions of modern India.
Q. Who came first among Europeans to India?
A. The Portuguese were first. Explorer Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498, opening the sea route to India.
Q. When did the British arrive in India?
A. The British East India Company was chartered in 1600. Its ships reached India in 1608–1611, establishing factories at Masulipatnam (1611) and Surat (1612).
Q. What was the significance of the Battle of Plassey (1757)?
A. Plassey was a turning point: Clive’s forces defeated Bengal’s Nawab (with French support), enabling the Company to control Bengal’s revenues. This victory was the foundation for British expansion in India.
Q. Which European introduced the printing press in India?
A. The Portuguese introduced the first printing press in India in 1556 at St. Paul’s College, Goa.
Q. Which was the last European power to leave India?A. The Portuguese remained longest; their territories (Goa, Daman, Diu) were annexed by India in 1961. (France’s enclaves joined India in 1954–62.)
Q. Consider the following fruits: (2025)
Papaya
Pineapple
Guava
How many of the above were introduced in India by the Portuguese in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) All the three
d) None
Answer: (c)
The advent of Europeans in India began with trade ambitions but ended in empire. From Vasco da Gama’s voyage (1498) onward, successive European powers established forts and factories. Initially competing for commerce, they gradually used military might to seize territory. The Europeans’ arrival transformed India’s economy (monopolies, decline of native industries), politics (treaties, lordships) and culture (printing, new crops, education). Ultimately, only the British remained dominant by the mid-19th century, shaping modern Indian history.
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