UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), Article 6.4, Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA), Loss and Damage Fund, International Solar Alliance (ISA), Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), Green Climate Fund (GCF), New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG), Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), Global Methane Pledge, Baku Work Plan, Lima Work Programme on Gender, LiFE Mission, Mangrove Alliance for Climate
Apr 15, 2025
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The 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held from November 11–22, 2024, in Baku, Azerbaijan. COP29 was pivotal as it arrived at a point where global emissions needed steep declines to meet the 1.5°C goal. The conference addressed the operationalization of past promises and financial structuring for upcoming climate transitions.
UNFCCC came into force on 21 March 1994 and acts as the main global treaty to combat climate change.
It has 198 parties, including the European Union.
It has facilitated major agreements like the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
Headquartered in Bonn, Germany, the UNFCCC Secretariat supports climate negotiations globally.
Table of content
COP3 (1997), Kyoto, Japan: Adopted Kyoto Protocol (legally binding emission targets for developed countries)
COP7 (2001), Marrakech, Morocco: Marrakech Accords signed (ratification framework for Kyoto Protocol)
COP8 (2002), New Delhi, India: Delhi Declaration on the needs of the poorest and sustainable development
COP13 (2007), Bali, Indonesia: Bali Roadmap and Action Plan
COP15 (2009), Copenhagen, Denmark: $30 billion fast-start finance for 2010–2012 pledged by developed countries
COP16 (2010), Cancun, Mexico: Established the Green Climate Fund under Cancun Agreements
COP18 (2012), Doha, Qatar: Doha Amendment to Kyoto Protocol (18% GHG cut by 2020 compared to 1990 levels)
COP19 (2013), Warsaw, Poland: Warsaw Framework for REDD+ and Warsaw Mechanism for Loss and Damage
COP21 (2015), Paris, France: Historic Paris Agreement adopted to limit temperature rise to well below 2°C; $100B climate finance pledge
COP26 (2021), Glasgow, UK: India announced Net Zero by 2070; call for coal "phase-down"; Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda launched
COP27 (2022), Sharm-el-Sheikh, Egypt: Loss & Damage Fund operationalized; African Carbon Market Initiative; Mangrove Alliance (India co-led)
COP28 (2023), Dubai, UAE: $700M pledged to Loss & Damage Fund; tripling nuclear capacity; India-led Green Credit Initiative, GRCA, and QCWG
COP29 (2024), Baku, Azerbaijan: Focus on $300B climate finance, Article 6 rules, and Global Goal on Adaptation
Reframe Climate Finance: Develop a post-2025 framework—New Collective Quantified Goal (NCQG)—to succeed the $100B/year commitment. This aims to meet the mounting costs of mitigation, adaptation, and loss and damage.
Finalize Article 6.4 Mechanism: Operationalize a transparent and accountable global carbon credit system under the Paris Agreement.
Enhance Adaptation Support: Strengthen and review National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) with increased financing and technical support.
Ensure Equity and Justice: Embed climate justice by ensuring historical responsibilities are acknowledged and support is directed to vulnerable nations.
New Climate Finance Goal (NCQG): COP29 finalized the NCQG, aiming to triple finance to $300 billion per year by 2035. It also calls for a broader target of $1.3 trillion per year from all sources to help developing countries adapt and mitigate climate change effects. Developed countries are expected to lead, though developing nations raised concerns over shared responsibilities.
Carbon Markets Agreement (Articles 6.2 & 6.4): Article 6.2 allows bilateral carbon trading between countries. Article 6.4 establishes a UN-managed carbon market to support standardized, transparent global carbon offsetting. Rules for corresponding adjustments were finalized to avoid double counting.
Loss and Damage Fund Operationalized: COP29 confirmed pledges worth $12.5 billion to support countries facing irreversible climate impacts, enhancing fund governance and access.
Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA): GGA was formalized with clear benchmarks, including increasing early warning coverage by 50% by 2027. It focuses on sectors like agriculture, water, health, and infrastructure.
Declaration on Reducing Methane: Over 30 countries, excluding India, supported a declaration focused on cutting methane emissions from organic waste, which contributes 20% to global methane levels. It emphasizes finance, regulation, data, and NDC alignment.
Global Methane Pledge: Countries reaffirmed the goal to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030 from 2020 levels. India is not part of this pledge.
Baku Workplan & Indigenous Participation: COP29 adopted the Baku Workplan under LCIPP, renewing the Facilitative Working Group’s mandate till 2027. It aims to embed indigenous knowledge into climate policy and enhance inclusive participation.
Gender and Climate Change: The Lima Work Programme on Gender (LWPG) was extended for 10 more years. A new Gender Action Plan will be developed at COP30 in Brazil.
Baku Harmoniya Climate Initiative for Farmers: A joint initiative by COP29 Presidency and FAO, this platform aims to consolidate climate actions in agriculture and simplify access to finance and support for farmers.
Negotiation Stance: India emphasized CBDR, opposing blanket responsibilities for all countries. It rejected the $300B NCQG as inadequate, advocating instead for $1.3 trillion annually, including $600B in grants.
Support for Global South: India backed LDCs and SIDS who walked out of talks over unmet financial demands. It urged removal of conditionalities in climate funding.
Showcasing Domestic Efforts: Reaffirmed its updated NDCs (50% non-fossil capacity by 2030, 45% emission intensity reduction). Promoted LiFE Mission, National Hydrogen Mission, ISA, and CDRI as models for global collaboration.
Gender and Traditional Knowledge: India endorsed inclusive policies and use of indigenous knowledge in climate adaptation strategies.
Platform for Global Leadership: COP gives India an opportunity to assert its leadership in climate negotiations and drive South-South cooperation.
Securing Climate Finance: India can leverage COP processes to access funds under GCF, Adaptation Fund, and new finance goals.
Promoting Indian Initiatives: Platforms like ISA, LiFE, and CDRI gain international traction through COP endorsement.
Influencing Global Climate Norms: India ensures equity-based principles such as CBDR are embedded in global frameworks.
Strategic Diplomacy: Strengthens India’s image as a responsible global power balancing development and environment.
1972–1992 (Foundational Phase): At the Stockholm Conference (1972), PM Indira Gandhi emphasized poverty–environment balance. India joined UNFCCC at Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
2002 COP8, New Delhi: Hosted COP8 and steered dialogue on development needs of vulnerable countries.
2008 NAPCC Launch: Adopted National Action Plan on Climate Change, setting the base for India’s long-term vision.
Paris Agreement 2015: Submitted strong NDCs and co-launched ISA with France.
Post-Paris Actions: Updated NDCs in 2022, contributing $1.28 billion to developing countries’ climate efforts.
2020s Onward: Advocates climate justice, champions green hydrogen, and leads key coalitions like LMDC and BASIC.
Inadequate Finance: The $300B annual goal is seen as a low bar compared to the estimated $5.9 trillion needed globally by 2030 to meet climate goals (UNEP, 2023).
Transparency & Accountability: Lack of clarity on disbursement procedures and actual timelines for fund utilization raised concerns.
Fossil Fuel Phase-Out: COP29 did not produce any decisive language on fossil fuel reduction. Oil-exporting countries resisted commitments, weakening global consensus.
Road to COP30: Sets the stage for Brazil to advance discussions on forest conservation, Amazon protection, and net-zero trajectories.
Carbon Market Expansion: A functioning global carbon trading system opens up new funding channels for climate-friendly projects.
Boost to Adaptation Financing: Strengthened GGA targets and fund flows are expected to benefit vulnerable regions, especially in Africa and South Asia.
COP29 laid significant groundwork for climate finance and governance reforms but also exposed persistent gaps in ambition and equity. It remains a vital reference point for UPSC aspirants, linking climate science with diplomacy, economics, and ethics. Tracking progress from COP29 to COP30 will be essential for understanding the future of global climate governance.
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