Vedic Period: Early & Later Vedic Period (1500–600 BCE)
Gajendra Singh Godara
Oct 6, 2025
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The Vedic Period, also known as the Vedic culture or Vedic Civilization flourished in ancient India from roughly 1500 BCE to 600 BCE, marked by the composition of the Vedas-sacred Sanskrit texts that underpin Hinduism. Originating with Indo-Aryan migrations into the Punjab region, the early Vedic age (1500–1000 BCE) saw hymns praising gods like Indra and Varuna. In the later Vedic period (1000–600 BCE), society grew more complex, with emerging kingdoms, metal tools, and ritual sacrifices. This Vedic time period laid the groundwork for Indian culture, philosophy, and social structures. After the Vedic era, the post Vedic period saw the rise of Mahajanapadas and the Mahabharata, building on Vedic traditions.
The word Veda comes from the Sanskrit root vid, meaning "to know." Vedas are ancient sacred texts that contain knowledge about rituals, philosophy, and hymns. There are four main Vedas—Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—passed down orally.
Rigveda: The oldest Veda, made of 10 books called mandalas, containing famous hymns like the Gayatri mantra.
Yajurveda: A manual for the Adhvaryu priest who performs rituals, mostly written in prose.
Samaveda: Specially meant for chanting, it consists of Rigvedic verses arranged to be sung.
Atharvaveda: Contains hymns, magical spells, and charms to protect against evil and disease, and is considered the latest Veda.
Each Veda is divided into four sections, each serving a different purpose:
Samhitas: The oldest part, containing hymns, prayers, and mantras used in rituals.
Brahmanas: Prose texts explaining the rituals and their significance.
Aranyakas: Also called "forest texts," they offer symbolic and philosophical interpretations of sacrifices.
Upanishads: Philosophical writings focused on meditation, the nature of the self (Atman), and ultimate reality (Brahman). There are 108 Upanishads, with 13 being particularly important.
Veda | Brahmanas | Aranyakas | Upanishads | Upveda | Priest |
Rigveda | Aitareya, Kaushiki | Aitareya, Kaushiki | Aitareya, Kaushiki | Ayurveda | Hotra |
Samaveda | Jaimini | Chandogya, Jaminiya | Chandogya, Jaminiya | Gandharvaveda | Adhvaryu |
Shukla Yajurveda | Shatapatha | Brihadaranyaka | Brihadaranyaka, Isha | Dhanurveda | Udgata |
Krishna Yajurveda | Taitriya | Taitriya | Kathopanishad, Taitriya, Maitrayani, Shvetashvatar | Dhanurveda | Udgata |
Atharvaveda | Gopatha | None | Mundaka, Mandukya | Shilpaveda/Arthasastra | Brahma |
Vedic Aryans composed the ancient Vedic hymns and are identified as an Indo-European linguistic group. Originating in the Eurasian steppes (southern Russia to Central Asia), a contingent migrated into northwest India, becoming known as Indo-Aryans. Nineteenth-century scholars once viewed Aryan as a racial designation, but modern research emphasizes language and culture. Distinguished from the earlier Harappan populations, these migrants introduced Sanskrit and Vedic rites, laying the foundations for subsequent Indian traditions and religious practices within the subcontinent.
The early Vedic Aryans lived in a region called Sapta-Sindhu, meaning the land of seven rivers. This area covered what is now Punjab and parts of Haryana. Beyond this, Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan, and southern Jammu and Kashmir.
The seven rivers of Sapta-Sindhu are:
Sindhu (Indus)
Vitasta (Jhelum)
Asikni (Chenab)
Parushni (Ravi)
Vipash (Beas)
Shutudri (Sutlej)
Sarasvati (a now mostly dried river)
During the Later Vedic period, the Aryans gradually moved eastward to occupy areas like eastern Uttar Pradesh (Kosala) and northern Bihar (Videha).
The Vedic Age is documented by both textual and archaeological sources:
Rig Veda (Samhita): The oldest Vedic text (c.1500–1200 BCE) containing 1,028 hymns (sūktas) to gods like Indra and Agni. It is the chief source on early Aryan society.
Other Vedic Samhitās: The Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Veda Samhitas (dated c.1200–900 BCE) compile mantras for rituals. Each Veda also has Brahmanas – prose commentaries on sacrificial rites. For example, the Brahmana texts explain the meaning and method of Vedic sacrifices and rituals.
Aranyakas and Upanishads: Later Vedic texts (700–500 BCE) that discuss ritual symbolism and early philosophy (e.g. concepts of Brahman and Atman). These hint at the transition from ritualism to spiritual inquiry.
Archaeology – Painted Grey Ware (PGW): An Iron-Age pottery culture (c.1200–600 BCE) in the Ganga-Yamuna region. PGW is named for its distinct grey pottery painted in black patterns. Its distribution map (below) aligns with Kuru–Pāñcāla (Later Vedic) settlements.
The Early Vedic period was a semi-nomadic, pastoral, tribal society, centered mainly in the northwest (Punjab and Sarasvati region).
Political Life
Social Unit: The basic unit was the Jana (tribe/clan), made of families (kula) and clans (vis).
Rajan: The chief of Jana, tasked with protecting people and cattle. His powers were not absolute.
Selection: The position of Rajan was not hereditary. Tribal assemblies such as Sabha (council of elders), Samiti (general assembly of freemen), and Vidatha (socio-religious and military gathering) shared authority.
Administration: The Rajan was assisted by officers like purohita (priest) and gramani (village head).
Army: The Sena was a temporary force of tribesmen mobilized during conflicts.
Taxes: People gave voluntary contributions known as Bali.
Social Life
Egalitarian structure: No rigid caste divisions; society was based on kinship.
Varna: The Rigveda only distinguishes between Arya (tribesmen) and Dasa/Dasyu (outsiders).
Family: Patriarchal families were the norm, but women had a relatively better position.
Women composed hymns (e.g., Apala, Lopamudra, Vishwavara).
They could attend assemblies and had freedom in marriage (swayamvara, widow remarriage).
Marriage: Mostly monogamous; chiefs sometimes practised polygamy.
Gotra system: Not prevalent.
Economic Life
Pastoral economy: Wealth measured in cattle.
Agriculture: Limited cultivation of barley (yava) and wheat along rivers.
Domestication: Cattle, horses, sheep, goats.
Medium of exchange: Cows and barter system; no coins.
Technology: Used bronze/copper (ayas); iron was unknown.
Religious Life
Polytheistic: Natural forces deified. Major gods – Indra (war, rain), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic order, rita), Soma, Ushas (dawn), Sarasvati.
Yajna: Fire sacrifices with Soma libations were central.
Beliefs: Concepts of rita (cosmic order) and satya (truth) guided morality.
Cultural Life
Oral tradition: Hymns preserved orally by priests.
Rigveda: Collection of 1,028 hymns – earliest Sanskrit text.
Women’s role: Some women seers (ṛṣikas) mentioned.
Knowledge: Familiarity with rivers like Sarasvati, Ravi (Parushini), Yamuna.
With expansion into the Ganga-Yamuna doab, society became more settled, agrarian, and stratified.
Political Life
Social Unit: Jana evolved into Janapada (territorial units).
Rajan: Kingship became hereditary and powerful. Titles like Samrat appear.
Administration: The king was assisted by purohita (chief priest), senani (army chief), and other officials.
Assemblies: Influence of Sabha and Samiti declined, as monarchy grew stronger.
Rituals: Coronation ceremonies like Rajasuya, Vajapeya, and Ashvamedha reinforced royal authority.
Taxes: Bali became a regular tax, along with Bhaga (share of produce) and Shulka (customs duty).
Social Life
Varna system: Solidified into fourfold division – Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.
Caste rigidity: Occupation and birth fixed status.
Family: Emergence of joint family system.
Gotra: Introduced to regulate marriage.
Varna-ashrama: Three life stages – Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha (later Sanyasa added).
Women’s status: Declined; excluded from assemblies, child marriage appeared, education restricted.
Economic Life
Agriculture: Became primary occupation.
Iron ploughshares (krishna-ayas) enabled large-scale cultivation.
Crops: rice (vrihi), barley, wheat, pulses, sugarcane.
Evidence of double cropping.
Crafts and trade: Pottery (Painted Grey Ware), weaving, metalwork, carpentry.
Domestication: Buffalo used for agriculture.
Taxes: Became compulsory; tax officers (bhagalugha) mentioned.
Medium of exchange: Use of Nishka (gold ornaments/coins) in addition to barter.
Religious Life
Gods: Indra and Agni lost prominence. Prajapati, Vishnu, Rudra (later Shiva) rose in status. Pushan became associated with Shudras.
Sacrifices: Grew in scale and complexity.
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) symbolized royal sovereignty.
Priests: Brahmins gained dominance; yajnas became a means of asserting social hierarchy.
Philosophy: Reaction to ritualism led to early Upanishadic thought – ideas of Brahman (universal soul) and Atman (individual soul).
Cultural Life
Literature: Compilation of Sama, Yajur, Atharva Veda, along with Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and early Upanishads.
Education: Formalized within Brahmana families.
Art & architecture: Fire altars became elaborate; Painted Grey Ware culture spread.
Thinkers: Philosophical debates – e.g., Yajnavalkya in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
Aspect | Early Vedic Period (c.1500–1000 BCE) | Later Vedic Period (c.1000–600 BCE) |
Chronology | Bronze Age India, Indo-Aryan migration begins | Early Iron Age, post-1200 BCE expansion |
Polity | Tribal janas (clans) led by rajans (chiefs); Sabha (elders’ council) and Samiti (general assembly) shared power. No large states. | Consolidated into small kingdoms (e.g. Kuru, Pañcāla) with hereditary kings (sometimes titled samrat). Royal courts with priests and nobles; Sabha/Samiti declined. |
Society | Clan/kinship groups; patriarchal. Social mobility was high and caste divisions were fluid – Rigveda mentions only arya and outsiders. | Formal varna system emerges: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. Social roles and purity rules became hereditary; rigid hierarchy. |
Economy | Pastoral economy: cattle (wealth), horses, goats, sheep. Limited farming (barley, wheat). No coins; barter and cattle gifts (bali) prevailed. | Agrarian economy: iron tools enabled clearing Ganges forests for rice/wheat cultivation. Crafts and trade expanded (pottery, metallurgy, textiles). Gifts to rulers became expected tributes. |
Religion | Vedic polytheism: worship of Indra, Agni, Varuna, etc.. Simple fire sacrifices (yajna, soma) at local altars. Emphasis on rita (cosmic order). | Elaborate rituals (Srauta sacrifices) and new royal rites like Asvamedha (horse sacrifice). Brahmins systematized sacrificial procedures. Early Upanishadic ideas (karma, rita → dharma) begin to surface. |
The Vedic Age set foundational pillars for Indian civilization that continue today:
Literary and Linguistic Legacy: Sanskrit – in which the Vedas were composed – remained a liturgical and scholarly language for millennia. The Vedic hymns are still revered texts in Hinduism.
Religious Continuity: Core Hindu concepts originate here: rita (cosmic order) evolved into dharma (duty/righteousness), and rituals like puja have Vedic analogues. Vedic gods (Indra, Agni, etc.) merge into later Hindu pantheons (e.g. Indra and Agni are still deities of ritual significance).
Social Foundations: The varna system, though transformed, has its roots in the later Vedic stratification. Joint family (kula) and gotra lineages persisted in Indian social structure. Early notions of kingship and political duty (rajan as protector) influenced later ideas of sovereignty (raja-rajasuya).
Philosophy and Ethics: The earliest Upanishadic and philosophical ideas (like Brahman as ultimate reality) emerged from Vedic speculation. Even today, popular Hindu mottos reflect Vedic thought: e.g. “Satyameva Jayate” (Truth alone triumphs) is from Mundaka Upanishad, which traces back to Vedic ṛtas.
Cultural Practices: Many rituals and chants in modern Hindu life (sandhyāvandanam, soma-singing in yajñas, fire oblations) are Vedic at origin. The recitation of the Gayatri Mantra and practice of offering water to the seven sages (Sapta Rishis) directly echo Vedic tradition.
UPSC Previous Year Questions
Q. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct? (2017)
Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (c)
Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynasty histories, and epic tales was the profession of who of the following? (2016)
(a) Shramana
(b) Parivraajaka
(c) Agrahaarika
(d) Magadha
Answer: (d)
Q. The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of: (2012)
(a) Bhakti
(b) image worship and Yajnas
(c) worship of nature and Yajnas
(d) worship of nature and Bhakti
Answer: (c)
Frequently Asked Questions(FAQs)
Q. What is Vedic culture?
A. Vedic culture is the ancient Indo-Aryan civilization described in the Vedas (1500–500 BCE).
Q. How did the social structure evolve from the Early Vedic Age to the Later Vedic Age?
A. The Early Vedic period was largely egalitarian, while the Later Vedic period saw the rigidification of the four-fold varna system, shaping ancient Indian society.
Q. What are the key features of Vedic literature and Vedic texts?
A. Vedic literature comprises the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—fundamental ancient Indian texts full of hymns, rituals, and philosophy, composed during the Vedic age.
Conclusion
The Vedic Age represents the cultural legacy and philosophical roots of Indian civilization. Its hymns and rituals evolved into Hindu religious practice; its Sanskrit language became the bedrock of Indian literature; and its ethical ideals of order and truth (ṛta, satya) continue to resonate. By 600 BCE, Vedic knowledge had matured into classical thought that shaped the Dharma–śāstra tradition. Thus, the Vedas provide a continuity link from ancient Aryan bards to today’s cultural and philosophical identity.
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